The policy process and outcome for privatization of prisons in the United States of America

Introduction The concept of decision making is unquestionably critical with respect to studying and understanding the procedure through which policies are both developed and implemented. A debate has ensued regarding the relative advantages of a rationalistic model in comparison to incremental approach of decision making in the public policy making process.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The policy process and outcome for privatization of prisons in the United States of America specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Nonetheless, knowledge about the weaknesses of rational decision making in institutions has wielded a considerable sway on the direction of the sociologically-based efforts in the sphere of organizational analysis (Smith May 1980, p.197). It is against this backdrop that this paper will analyze the policy process and outcome for privatization of prisons in the United States of America using both the ratio nalist approach and the Incrementalist approach. Models of decision making The Rationalistic Approach The decision making process under the rationalistic model is based on the following four elements: A search procedure to ascertain goals. Devising objectives after search. Selecting (strategies) approaches to carry out objectives. Appraising the outcomes (Smith May 1980, p.198). It is important to mention that rationalistic model is broadly viewed as a conception with respect to the manner in which all types of decisions are and ought to be made. In other words, an actor discerns a dilemma, states a goal, considers alternative strategies available and selects the best alternative with respect to their respective advantages (Fischer, Miller Sidney 2007, p. 173). Nonetheless, the rationalistic model has been criticized extensively. First, the rationalist approach is deemed as being parochial. The model ignores a number of political variables that constrains the amount of alternati ves available with respect to the power of related vested interests. Many decision makers within the policy settings work in environments with numerous limits. As a result, they do not have the liberty to assess all possible alternatives and are obliged to shortlist alternatives that are obviously not the best ones (Smith May 1980, p.198). Second, the rationalistic model is perceived to be value biased. For example, in an organizational perspective, the rationalistic approach is indicted of favouring senior managers over junior staff whose valuable inputs are neglected. Third, the approach is perceived as extremely inflexible in drawing sharp differences between facts and values, ends and means, and values and decisions. What is regarded as a fact is particularly determined by the values and interests of the parties involved (Smith May 1980, p.198).Advertising Looking for essay on public administration? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Le arn More According to Smith and May (1980), the rationalistic model is finally accused of being unrealistic (p. 200). Even when computer technology is employed to re-examine and appraise all feasible solutions to a problem so as to choose the best strategy, the resources used to carry out the search usually surpass the savings realized by adopting the preferred strategy. This is one of the problems that the policy makers encounter in making a decision on whether or not to commission research (Smith May 1980, p. 200). Incrementalist Approach The Incrementalist model has also been a subject of condemnations. The model is censured for being old-fashioned because it only addresses short-term and counteractive change and underpins inertia. Nevertheless, it is deemed as valid approach in circumstances where the outcomes of the current policies are generally acceptable and if the nature of the dilemma is somewhat stable. In addition, the model is considered appropriate if the means for addressing the dilemma are incessantly present. The Incrementalist model is also censured for being unfair because excellent decisions are considered subject to their suitability in a given context but not on the basis of their ranking on a specified objective assessment criterion. Consequently, this model is believed to be in favour of the interest of the political elite at the expense of the interests of the disadvantaged and politically disorganized (Smith May 1980, p.201). The policy process Any discourse regarding the public policy process must lend emphasis on the nature of power in the state as well as propositions regarding who wields power. This means that both the public policy process and political process are closely related. For example, in an attempt to explain the meaning of political analysis, Smith and May (1980) asserts that politics should be defined in such a manner to include the entire social sphere (p. 201). The repercussion of this definition is that practic es, processes and events should not be branded as extra-political or non-political merely on the basis of the specific framework in which they take place. All practices, processes and events that take place within the social field can be political and thus subject to political analysis (Smith May 1980, p. 201). Sociology is another discipline that plays an integral role in understanding the policy process. It can be argued that the sociology of organizations plays a vital role in understanding the policy process that takes place within organizations. The sociology of organizations is especially an integral sphere with respect to the analysis of the conversion of policy into action as well as investigating issues related to the actions of employees within complex organizations (Smith May 1980, p.201). Privatization of prisons in the United States Privatization of prisons is a general concept that describes a government policy whereby one or several prisons operations are outsourced to private sector. The policy may entail outsourcing some aspects relevant to constructing a new prison such as finance, construction and design.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The policy process and outcome for privatization of prisons in the United States of America specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In some circumstances, the private organization may possess the facility for a period of time. Under this situation, the private firm receives payment from the government to run the prison as well as the operating costs of the detention facility. Usually, the government put the prison out to tender once it opts to privatize a detention facility. The length of a contract for prison management typically range between five and 20 years and it spells out the services to be offered and the expected quality of those services. The management cost to be paid under the contract typically embraces a performance-based fee. T he contract usually stipulates a range of other issues including insurance and indemnities, reporting and record keeping obligations, staff enrolment, compliance with policies and laws, and suspension and termination of the contract (Roth 2004, p.3). The concept of prison privatization started in mid 1980s in the US and was swiftly adopted by other countries. According to Jing (2006), privatization of prison refers to the transfer of inmates to privately managed detention facilities subject to an agreement whereby the outsourced inmates are lawfully and fiscally subject to states but are directly incarcerated in private prisons (p.158). Currently, there are well over 100 private prisons in the US. What’s more, the US has the largest number of inmates in private prisons (approximately 94,000 prisoners) although this figure represents only 7% of the entire population of inmates in the country (Roth 2004, p.5). Circumstance in which private prisons emerged in the US The policy r elated to the privatization of prisons in the United States started as a result of an emergency in the country’s penal system in the early 1980s (Chang Thompkins 2002, p. 45). During a phase of unparalleled growth in the population of inmates, (mainly as a result of sound policies and laws such as the war on drugs), detention facilities across the nation became congested. Congestion resulted in inhumane conditions in old detention facilities. As a result, many prisoners initiated legal proceedings against the government. Federal Courts ruled in favour of the inmates because they found the conditions of imprisonment in many detention facilities across the nation to be inhumane. Consequently, the Courts directed state governments to rectify the problem (Roth 2004, p.7). While state government were under immense pressure to remedy the situation, they did not have adequate resources to construct new prisons. Under this environment, many states had to consider other alternatives and the private sector reacted to this need in the shape of privately owned firms that specialize in the construction and administration of detention facilities.Advertising Looking for essay on public administration? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Thus, many states deemed the private sector as a smart solution because the state would avoid the problem of raising extra capital if a private firm funded, built and managed a new detention facility (Lundahl Kunz 2009, p.383; Chang Thompkins 2002, p.45). What’s more, many states assumed that the private sector could construct new detention facilities faster and cheaper and thereby generate savings in operational outlays (Roth 2004, p.8; Medina 2010, p.4). It is important to mention that the penal crisis was taking place at a period of key political and ideological development. For example, privatization was a predominant concept on the political agenda of the New Right. What’s more, there was an escalating interest in privatization across the country. For instance, a certain US official commented that any proposal could develop into a policy if it carried the tag privatization (Roth 2004, p.8). However, the drive towards privatization of prisons in the US attracted severe criticisms from the public and media. For instance, a nationwide discourse ensued about the desirability, propriety and legality of privatized prisons. In addition, a number of criminal justice professional groups (i.e. the National Sheriff’s Association, the American Bar Association and the American Correctional Association) opposed this move (Roth 2004, p.9). The principal mode used by the government for outsourcing private prison has been for the state to make a decision on whether or not outsource for certain services such as beds required for state prisons. The government then looks for a supplier willing to supply these beds. Nonetheless, another trend has emerged whereby a number of private companies have taken the risk of constructing private detention facilities without first securing any guarantee of inmates from corrections agencies Chang Thompkins 2002, p.45. Once the facility is constructed, the private firm advertises their new detention facility to corr ections departments found throughout the United States. In essence, these privately constructed detention centres are basically a national market because they can hold inmates from different state corrections departments (Roth 2004, p.24; Chang Thompkins 2002, p.45). Privatization of prisons in the United States was brought about by political transformations that started in late 1960s. It is worthy to note that political factors directly swayed privatization of prisons and indirectly swayed it by producing economic and pragmatic inducements. In addition, neo-liberalism and conventional social control were the two main political catalysts with autonomous sway on privatization of prisons. Nonetheless, they were both grounded in the conservative practice and its renaissance between late 1960s and early 1970s as a reaction to the socio-economic disasters. For instance, the two proposals by President Reagan â€Å"get tough on crime† and â€Å"get government off our backs, out of our pockets† (Jing 2006, p.161) depicted the importance of conservatism doctrine. These political inclinations have restructured the context and tasks, and consequently the manner in which detention systems in the US are managed. For example, the emergence of conventional social control represented a notion of state expansion. Conventional social control designates the reason of an offense to individual rational choice as opposed to undesirable social environment. This viewpoint emphasizes a punishment-based custodial state as a principal form of crime management and resorts to the employment of comprehensive criminalization, harsh prison terms as well as correctional management thereby eliminating the moral and political impediments of prison privatization. In spite of declining crime rates, new criminal justice policies embraced the upsurge of inmate populations. Consequently, these policies brought about functional problems of correctional systems such as increased budgeti ng pressures and unconstitutional congestion (Jing 2006, p.161). The incessant decline in the gap between detention rate and crime/arrest rates can be attributed to the severe post-detainment state actions (imposition and administration of sentence). Prior to 1970s, the liberal justice practice prevailed whereby the government pursued the rehabilitative goal of translating law offenders into law abiders. Afterwards, the United States justice system was slowly converted to a determinate system. The emergence of conservatism in crime management was demonstrated by methodical efforts to widen the range of criminalization as well as toughening law enforcement. For example, Anti-drug Abuse Act [1986] was enacted to combat drug related offenses. It is important to mention that this Act alone accounted for 55% of federal inmates in 2001. In addition, the Comprehensive Crime Control Act [1984] stipulated fixed minimum prison terms for some offenses, particularly drug and violence-related cr imes. What’s more, several states enacted three-strike decrees to deal with recidivism. Furthermore, in 2000, approximately 29 states had approved the federal truth-in-sentencing standards in order to reduce discretionary release of lawbreakers. Consequently, the release rate of inmates declined from 37% to 31% between 1990 and 1998 whereas the mean time prison term increased from 22 months to 28 months during the same period (Schneider 1999, p.199). Therefore, politicization of criminal justice policies from late 1960s transferred crime control policies to the justice system. In addition, it provided the impetus for state governments to privatize prisons in order to reduce congestion in the old detention facilities (Jing 2006, p.162). The emergence of neoliberal policies that encouraged a nominal and an indirect state is another key political phenomenon that precipitated the surge toward privatization of prisons in the US (Flynn Cannon 2009, p. 3). It deserves merit to ment ion that neoliberal economic policies were first adopted by the government in early 1970s in reaction to crises such as economic slump, high interest rates, inflation and oil shocks. The mainstay of neo-liberalism is an array of economic policies that redefine the relationship between the state and society with reliable backing of a market-oriented state and economy such as decentralization, retrenchment, privatization, deregulation and rule of the market. In light of the enormous prison economy it faced, the neoliberal US government wanted to restructure both its distributive as well as redistributive expenses (Jing 2006, p.162). First, neoliberal principles compelled states to reassign detention-related government costs to the private sector. The prudence to dispense the newly dispensed public expenses to private prisons offered an ideal chance for the government to control the growth of direct correctional official procedure. What’s more, privatization offered an ideal cha nce for political elites to create an assimilated market of correctional labour, vitiate correctional unions and compensate or fragment political coalitions. In addition, neoliberal correctional restructuring eliminated welfare from correctional system thereby minimizing correctional expenses (Jing 2006, p.162). Thus, privatization of prisons reunited the conflict between the nominal, non-intrusive state function across neo-liberalism policy areas and the liberal function of government in social control under social conventionalism. In essence, privatization of prisons improved the state’s punishing capacity as well as minimizing the role of the state in direct management of punishment (Flynn Cannon 2009, p. 3). In nutshell, political variables were the fundamental impetuses behind privatization of detention facilities in the US whereas instrumental aspects had a direct sway on the privatization of prisons. The corrective tendency in crime management generated demand for cor rections whereas neoliberal economic policies favoured market as an alternative strategy of satisfying the demand. Thus, prison dilemmas, frequently represented through instrumental predicaments (i.e. financial difficulties and congestion), were deeply entrenched in politics and their answers were extremely conditioned by political perspectives (Jing 2006, p.163). Evaluation of policy outcome for prison privatization Abt Associates Inc report In 1997, the United States Congress directed the Attorney general to carry out an inquest into prison privatization. The Attorney General was also expected to reassess relevant legal issues as well as comparative investigation of the cost efficiency and viability of public and private sector, local government and state operations of corrections and prisons programs across all security levels. Consequently, Abt Associates Inc was commissioned to carry out the study (Roth 2004, p.88). This section will discuss the findings in the report in terms of the relative costs and quality of prison privatization in the United States. With respect to whether privatization of correctional facilities saves money, the report stated that in some cases, outsourcing of prison services to private sector saves the taxpayers money. Nonetheless, there are some nominal disparities. Some of these noticeable disparities may not represent real savings but may rather be accounting relics, particularly those related to lower projected outlays of government operational costs (Roth 2004, p.88). Other noticeable sources of saving in several states represent inferior expenditure for inmate health care as well as other areas of facility operations such as inferior earnings for junior employees in a number of jurisdictions. Thus, with respect to savings and costs, the report concluded that a limited number of current studies provide insufficient proof of any broad pattern. Several states may be eager to pay soaring costs for private detention if they requi re beds to resolve short-term deficits. In other states, costs for outsourcing may undeniably be lower compared to direct public imprisonment. Nevertheless, the report found that it was hard to determine savings and costs on the basis of the postulations made by the analyst as well as the limited data available (Roth 2004, p.89). Bureau of Justice Assistance report In 2001, the Bureau of Justice Assistance prepared a report on emerging issues on private prisons using the findings of a number of studies carried out in the United States. The report evaluated prior studies done on the cost benefits of private prisons. In summary, the report concluded that the cost benefits of prison privatization had not occurred to the level guaranteed by the private sector. Although there are some instances where prison privatization resulted in cost savings, numerous other cases demonstrates that such savings have not been achieved. With respect to previous studies, the report concluded that the bes t study that could be relied upon was the Tennessee study that demonstrated minimal disparities with regard to cost savings (Roth 2004, p.90). Therefore, the Bureau of Justice Assistance report revealed that the private sector had merely imitated the techniques employed by the public sector with regard to prison management and staffing. It appears that the only effort made by the private sector was to trim down the expenses associated with the inmate management model used by the public sector. This means that the private sector was probably employing a more competent model that basically imitated the one used by the public sector. The report did not find any adequate data to substantiate the notion that prisons managed by the private sector generated cost benefits compared to prisons managed by the public sector. On a similar note, there were no authoritative facts to substantiate the claim that the quality of imprisonment and prisoner services in private detention facilities was be tter than those in publicly operated facilities. It thus appears that private detention centres can function in a similar fashion as publicly operated prisons for some types of prisoners such as minimum security (Roth 2004, p.90). A national Survey of state prison privatization A national survey of state prison privatization was also carried out in 1997 and involved 65 private detention facilities in the United States. The purpose of this study was compare and contrast private and public detention facilities on a number of issues deemed to be vital pointers regarding the efficacy and efficiency of privatization of state prisons. The findings of this survey suggested that private prisons were not significantly different from public prisons with three critical exceptions. First, the rate of major confrontations between prison staff and inmates was higher in private prisons than in public prisons. Second, the number of employees enlisted by privately managed facilities is about 15% low er compared to the number of employees enlisted by publicly operated confinement centres. Third, private prison centres seem to lack management information system (MIS) competences. The report also found that private prisons frequently encountered management problems due to lack of qualified staff in important positions. The escalating rates of misconduct from prisoners at private detention facilities was attributed to the enlistment of scantly trained and inexperienced staff (Roth 2004, p.91). References Chang, T Thompkins, D 2002, ‘Corporations go to prisons: The expansion of corporate power in the correctional industry’, Labour Studies Journal, vol. 22, pp. 45-69. Fischer, F, Miller, G Sidney, M 2007, Handbook of Public Policy Analysis: Theory, Politics and Methods, CRC Press, London. Flynn, M Cannon, C 2009, The Privatization of Immigration Detention: Towards a Global View, The Graduate Institute, Geneva. Jing, Y 2006, ‘Prison privatization in the US: A stu dy of causes and magnitude’, Chinese Publicly Affairs Quarterly, vol. 2 no. 2, pp. 157-183. Lundahl, B Kunz, C 2009, ‘Prison Privatization: A Meta-analysis of cost and quality of confinement indicators’, Research on Social Work Practice, vol. 19 no. 4, pp. 383-394. Medina, B 2010, Constitutional Limits to Privatization: The Israeli Supreme Court Decision to Invalidate Prison Privatization, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel. Roth, L 2004, Privatisation of Prisons, NSW Parliamentary Library Research Service, New South Wales. Schneider, A 1999, ‘Public-Private Partnerships in the U.S. Prison System’, The American Behavioural Scientist, vol. 43 no. 1, pp. 192-208. Smith, G May, D 1980, ‘The artificial debate between rationalist and incremental models of decision making’, Policy and Politics, vol. 8, pp.197-211. This essay on The policy process and outcome for privatization of prisons in the United States of America was written and submitted by user Jazmin Lott to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The Strategies and Techniques Used by Students in Writing an Assessment Paper

The Strategies and Techniques Used by Students in Writing an Assessment PaperIf you are trying to write a community assessment paper, you might be wondering if the strategies and techniques you have learned so far will be enough. The answer is yes. You can develop and utilize strategies and techniques you have learned in this article to write the community assessment paper that will help you earn a passing grade and make an informed decision about entering a community college. As with all of your other assessments, the strategies and techniques you learn here will enable you to customize the tools you need to get the results you want for the community college admissions essay.Writing an essay on what you know about the area you will be attending college is an effective strategy. In this essay, you need to use every strategy and technique you have learned about studying in the academic community college. This strategy can also be applied to your community college tests. What you need to do is to use the strategies and techniques you have learned about writing tests.There are four types of essay. What you need to do is to use each type of essay technique to your advantage. I will give you examples in a minute. The first type of essay is a thesis essay. You must learn how to write a thesis essay.The second type of essay is called an overview essay. You must learn how to write an overview essay to use the strategies and techniques you have learned about writing an overview essay. Third type of essay is a non-academic essay. You must learn how to write a non-academic essay. Fourth type of essay is a managerial essay.The best strategy for writing a non-academic essays is to use the strategy of writing a concise summary of what you know about the area that you will be attending college. You can use the essay technique you have learned about studying in the academic community college. Use the strategies and techniques you have learned about writing an overview essay to your advantage. If you would like to read more about the four types of essays, here is a link to my eBook.How will you know if your student's community college needs assessment paper or a test? You can do an assessment paper yourself. You must find out if the guidelines on the application to your community college have been followed. To do this, you must use the strategy of using strategies and techniques you have learned about writing a test.What you need to do is to use the strategies and techniques you have learned about writing an essay to your advantage to get the results you want. If you follow these strategies and techniques, you will be able to do a good job in developing a well-written essay for your student's community college admissions essay. These strategies and techniques can be applied to any student, you are preparing to teach in an academic community college. In fact, I guarantee you that any student who uses these strategies and techniques will be able to gain a h igher grade for their work than students who don't.

Letter Writing - Definition and Examples

Letter Writing s Letter writing is the exchange of written or printed messages. Distinctions are commonly drawn between personal letters (sent between family members, friends, or acquaintances) and business letters (formal exchanges with businesses or government organizations). Letter writing occurs in many forms and formats, including notes, letters, and postcards. Sometimes referred to as hard copy or snail mail, letter writing is often distinguished from forms of computer-mediated communication (CMC), such as email and texting. In his book Yours Ever: People and Their Letters (2009), Thomas Mallon identifies some of the subgenres of the letter, including the Christmas card, the chain letter, the mash note, the bread-and-butter letter, the ransom note, the begging letter, the dunning letter, the letter of recommendation, the unsent letter, the Valentine, and the war-zone dispatch. Observations The test, I think, of a good letter is a very simple one. If one seems to hear the person talking as one reads the letter, it is a good letter.(A.C. Benson, Letter-Writing. Along the Road, 1913)The art of beautiful letter writing has declined with our supposed advances, [Alvin Harlow] lamenteda cry we have been hearing ever more often in the eighty years since his book appeared. Those of us with a strong inclination toward the past must remember that, to its early writers, the handwritten or even chiseled letter must itself have seemed a marvel of modernity, and surely, even in Queen Atossas time, there were those who complained that letter writingby its nature a virtual activitywas cutting down on all the face time that civilized Persians had previously enjoyed.(Thomas Mallon, Yours Ever: People and Their Letters. Random House, 2009)Literary CorrespondenceThe age of the literary correspondence is dying, slowly but surely electrocuted by the superconductors of high modernity. This ex piration was locked into a certainty about 20 years ago; and although William Trevor and V.S. Naipaul, say, may yet reward us, it already sounds fogeyish to reiterate that, no, we wont be seeing, and we wont be wanting to see, the selected faxes and emails, the selected texts and tweets of their successors.(Martin Amis, Philip Larkins Women. The Guardian, October 23, 2010) Historical RecordsSo much of what we know of the world stems from private letters. Our principal eyewitness account of Vesuvius derives from a letter from Pliny the Younger to the Roman historian Tacitus. Our knowledge of the Roman world has been hugely enriched by the discovery in the early 1970s of inky messages on oak and birch discovered not far from Hadrians Wall in Britain. The letters of Henry VIII to Anne Boleyn and of Napoleon to Josephine show infatuation, weakness and angeruseful additions to rounded character portraits. The list carries on to the present day, with recently collected correspondence by Paul Cezanne, P.G. Wodehouse and Christopher Isherwood adding nuance to influential lives.(Simon Garfield, The Lost Art of Letter-Writing. The Wall Street Journal, November 16-17, 2013)The Future of Letter WritingAll communication is human-madebased upon some form of technology. It is not that some forms of communication are free from technology but rather that all modes of c ommunication are based upon a complex relationship between the current cultural practices and the material resources necessary to support the technology. . . .Though CMC [computer-mediated communication] may, for those with access, replace letters as a means of rapid personal communication [the] lack of material fixity ensures a continued role for letters. By making a physical mark in the process of communication, letters for the moment support a number of social practices and conventions where authorship, authenticity and originality need to be ensured (e.g. in legal or business interactions).(Simeon J. Yates, Computer-Mediated Communication: The Future of the Letter? Letter Writing as a Social Practice, ed. by David Barton and Nigel Hall. John Benjamins, 2000) Jail MailIn prisons across the country, with their artificial pre-Internet worlds where magazines are one of the few connections to the outside and handwritten correspondence is the primary form of communication, the art of the pen-to-paper letter to the editor is thriving. Magazine editors see so much of it that they have even coined a term for these letters: jail mail.(Jeremy W. Peters, The Handwritten Letter, an Art All but Lost, Thrives in Prison. The New York Times, Jan. 7, 2011)Electronic Letter-WritingWhen I sift through my past weeks electronic in-box, I find easily half a dozen messages that qualify as letters in every traditional sense. They are coherently structured, written with care and design. They enlighten, they illuminate, they endear. They even follow the old epistolary ritual of signing off (not yours ever, but some venerable variant: yours . . . cheers . . . all best . . . xo). . . .[T]hese messages would probably never have come my way if the senders had been obl iged to take out pen and paper. Indeed, it is the very facility of electronic communication that makes the Luddite soul tremble. . . .Even in the age of tweets and pokes and blasts, the impulse to bring order to our thoughts and lives persists, and at the risk of sounding like a technojingoist, one might argue that technology facilitates this impulse as much as it impedes it.​(Louis Bayard, Personal Compositions. The Wilson Quarterly, Winter 2010)

Battle of Kwajalein in World War II

Battle of Kwajalein in World War II The Battle of Kwajalein occurred January 31 to February 3, 1944 in the Pacific Theater of World War II (1939-1945). Moving forward from victories in the Solomons and Gilbert Islands in 1943, Allied forces sought to penetrate the next ring of Japanese defenses in the central Pacific. Attacking into the Marshall Islands, the Allies occupied Majuro and then commenced operations against Kwajalein. Striking at both ends of the atoll, they succeeded in eliminating the Japanese opposition after brief but fierce battles. The triumph opened the way for the subsequent capture of Eniwetok and a campaign against the Marianas.   Background In the wake of the American victories at Tarawa and Makin in November 1943, Allied forces continued their island-hopping campaign by moving against Japanese positions in Marshall Islands. Part of the Eastern Mandates, the Marshalls were originally a German possession and were awarded to Japan after World War I. Considered part of the outer ring of Japanese territory, planners in Tokyo decided after the loss of the Solomons and New Guinea that the islands were expendable. With this in mind, what troops were available were shifted to the area to make the islands capture as costly as possible. Japanese Preparations Led by Rear Admiral Monzo Akiyama, Japanese forces in the Marshalls consisted of the 6th Base Force which initially numbered approximately 8,100 men and 110 aircraft. While a sizable force, Akiyamas strength was diluted by the need to spread his command over the entirety of the Marshalls. In addition, many of Akiyamas troops were labor/construction details or naval forces with little ground combat training. As a result, Akiyama could only muster around 4,000 effectives. Believing the assault would strike one of the outlying islands first, he positioned the bulk of his men on Jaluit, Mili, Maloelap, and Wotje. In November 1943, American airstrikes began whittling down Akiyamas air power, destroying 71 aircraft. These were partially replaced over the next several weeks by reinforcements flown in from Truk. On the Allied side, Admiral Chester Nimitz originally planned a series of assaults on the outer islands of the Marshalls, but upon learning of Japanese troop dispositions through ULTRA radio intercepts altered his approach. Rather than strike where Akiyamas defenses were strongest, Nimitz directed his forces to move against Kwajalein Atoll in the central Marshalls. Armies Commanders Allies Rear Admiral Richmond K. TurnerMajor General Holland M. Smithapprox. 42,000 men (2 divisions) Japanese Rear Admiral Monzo Akiyamaapprox. 8,100 men Allied Plans Designated Operation Flintlock, the Allied plan called for Rear Admiral Richmond K. Turners 5th Amphibious Force to deliver Major General Holland M. Smiths V Amphibious Corps to the atoll where Major General Harry Schmidts 4th Marine Division would assault the linked islands of Roi-Namur while Major General Charles Corletts 7th Infantry Division attacked Kwajalein Island. To prepare for the operation, Allied aircraft repeatedly struck Japanese airbases in the Marshalls through December. This saw B-24 Liberators stage through Baker Island to bomb a variety of strategic targets including the airfield on Mili. Subsequent strikes saw A-24 Banshees and B-25 Mitchells mount several raids across the Marshalls. Moving into position, US carriers began a concerted air offensive against Kwajalein on January 29, 1944. Two days later, US troops captured the small island of Majuro, 220 miles to the southeast, without a fight. This operation was conducted by the V Amphibious Corps Marine Reconnaissance Company and 2nd Battalion, 106th Infantry.    Coming Ashore That same day, members of the 7th Infantry Division landed on small islands, dubbed Carlos, Carter, Cecil, and Carlson, near Kwajalein to establish artillery positions for the assault on the island. The next day, the artillery, with additional fire from US warships, including USS Tennessee (BB-43), opened fire on Kwajalein Island. Pummeling the island, the bombardment allowed the 7th Infantry to land and easily overcome the Japanese resistance. The attack was also aided by the weak nature of the Japanese defenses which could not be built in depth due to the islands narrowness.   Fighting continued for four day with the Japanese mounting nightly counterattacks. On February 3, Kwajalein Island was declared secure. Roi-Namur At the north end of the atoll, elements of the 4th Marines followed a similar strategy and established fire bases on islands dubbed Ivan, Jacob, Albert, Allen, and Abraham. Attacking Roi-Namur on February 1, they succeeded in securing the airfield on Roi that day and eliminated Japanese resistance on Namur the next day. The largest single loss of life in the battle occurred when a Marine threw a satchel charge into a bunker containing torpedo warheads. The resulting blast killed 20 Marines and wounded several others. Aftermath The victory at Kwajalein broke a hole through the Japanese outer defenses and was a key step in the Allies island-hopping campaign. Allied losses in the battle numbered 372 killed and 1,592 wounded. Japanese casualties are estimated at 7,870 killed/wounded and 105 captured. In assessing the outcome at Kwajalein, Allied planners were pleased to find that the tactical changes made after the bloody assault on Tarawa had bore fruit and plans were made to attack Eniwetok Atoll on February 17. For the Japanese, the battle demonstrated that beachline defenses were too vulnerable to attack and that defense in-depth was necessary if they hoped to stop Allied assaults.

Topic 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Topic 2 - Essay Example It was analyzed using simple analytical tools. The study found out that teens had a lot of influence in their parents' consumption pattern. The concept of marketing has become broad and refined with seemingly segmentation of the market. It has been well studied to come up with the best marketing strategy for organization. This is because marketing forms the core operation of any profit oriented organization. It is a powerful tool for a business to have a breakthrough in its existence. Currently the scholarly world is concerned with studying the effects of having an effective marketing strategy based on different market segments. (Willis, 1990) Market segmentation has continued to grow day by day as more and more researches are revealing needs of different segments of the market. It has tried to shift from tradition segmentation of male and females, old and young, and other segmentation to more refined one. It has also seen the emergence of consumer clubs sub-culture which has driven the market in another direction. These clubs have gone on marketing spree at one time buying particular goods which seemingly identifies a particular club. (Hall, 1997) Sarah (1997a) defines Culture as some particular values or tastes that define a particular group of people. A sub-culture is a division of a culture with particular tastes or values that are not shared with other members of a culture. Marketing have been targeting a particular subculture within a diverse culture. This has become a valued aspect in any marketing strategy. This is important to address various demographic characteristics that are evident in a particular culture. It has become evident that people within a culture do not share the same values and tastes. For example it will be difficult to find the old and the young sharing the same tastes in fashions. This has become important to address the needs of every subculture and also to help create a notable difference between the two sub-cultures. Marketers have been using the concept of sub-cultures to develop refined marketing strategies that address the needs of each and every group in a culture and on the other hand to mar ket product that are seemingly acceptable to consumers. (Donovan and Henley, 2003) The strategy of manufacturing and branding goods targeting the whole population has not bee very successful. It has led to pile up of goods in warehouse due to low sales. Market research data has revealed manufacturing and branding goods with a particular target to a group with a clear knowledge of its demands in terms of purchase power and the consumption pattern. For example the teen group has been found to fast in consumption compared to the old. A senile member of the community will buy a pair of shoe once in a year while a teen of the same community will have bought more than three pairs of shoes in the same time bracket. This

Advanced Marine Design Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Advanced Marine Design - Coursework Example Substantial modifications have been installed in the design to include the hull form characteristics and standard dimensions to iterate certain design arrangements. This marine craft is a high-speed aluminum planing hull with similar screw diesel thrust and heavy buildup. The key facets that have been well-thought-out in the designing procedure of the craft include the effects, needs, dimensional ratios, form features, resistance, propulsion and strength of the ship and its outline (Mizine, Brenner and Harries, 2011, p. 1). Corresponding dimensional ratios I. Influences Increasing anxiety over the creation of the general design of the marine craft, its incorporation, with production, sustenance and renovation has created specific attention (Mizine, Brenner and Harries, 2011, p. 1). This focus influences the functions and needs of automatic designs and production, and the application of information technology aspects. Initiation of computerized instruments has made this design employ the attempt of enhancing the design guidelines with the aim of advancing the performance and security of the ship and its structures. The depiction of the hull configurations for such a high-speed marine crafts is the most significant aspect that greatly influences all stages of the design project (Mizine, Brenner and Harries, 2011, p. 1)... This mainly applies for traditional marine crafts that make this design appear and perform as a modern and improved structure of traveling and warring purposes (Mizine, Brenner and Harries, 2011, p. 2). III. Principle dimensional ratios The accompanying dimensional ratios have been recognized with a program that gets a grip of the function played by the three-dimensional computer displaying in current ship design exercise. This exercise involves training in numerous current utilized three-dimensional project apparatuses like the current design (Mizine, Brenner and Harries, 2011, p. 2). To get to the opening principle features of the ship’s design structure, a database of similar vessels were covered. To commence the design, it was already established that planing hulls need a coefficient of velocity (CV) of 2, Savitsky, operating under the theory of Hydrodynamic Design of Planing Hulls. The marine technology used in this design also employs a cruising velocity that is supposed to be approximately 30 knots. Using these values and the theory that establishes Savitsky’s equation: CV = V/ (g*B).5 A distance of 20 feet was initiated for the marine craft’s beam. Afterwards, the equation was deployed to control this measurement: L = 9.8489*B –91.585 = 105 feet Knowing the length, the relationship shown in the design was used to realize the displacement: ? = 2.2244*L –120.01 = 113.55 LT Lastly, from the calculation, a value for the current was realized: ? = 56.857*T – 253.56 T = 5.5 feet Consequently, preliminary principal dimensions were as follows: L = 105 feet B = 20 feet T = 5.5 feet IV. Form characteristics on stability Certain incorporation techniques, Bonjean curves, dampened exteriors and

Yoga Essay -- essays research papers

The term Yoga has a few meanings. It's both a school of thought in the Hindu religion, and a system of mental and physical exercise developed by this school. All forms of yoga originated in India. People who follow this school, and practice any form of yoga are called yogis, or yogins. Students study under prolonged and careful guidance of the teacher, known as the guru. The first syllable 'gu,'; in Sanskrit means light; the second syllable, 'ru'; means light. A guru is a spiritual teacher who leads the pupil from darkness to light. Literally, yoga means 'the union of mind and body.'; In Sanskrit, the language of India, yoga means discipline. Many people in western countries practice some form of yoga exercise in hope of improving their health, and achieving peace of mind. Various forms of yoga have become popular in Europe and the United States. Transcendental Meditation is a simplified version of the yoga of Hinduism. Bhakti-Yoga involves the dedication of all actions and thoughts to a chosen God. Hatha-Yoga, stresses difficult bodily postures and breathing techniques. It has become very popular as a method of gaining and improving health. Certain people also study this form of yoga because of the control they develop over certain bodily functions. A new concept in fitness combines gentle stretching with techniques from Hatha Yoga to perform the most effective, relaxing ways of exercising. It is called Yogacise. There are other forms of yoga that are practiced in India. T...